Assessment and Culturally Responsive Practices

Synthesis

Moje and Hinchman
The authors of this chapter argue that all best practices are culturally responsive.  Responsive teaching is respectful of the individual as a person, as well as his or her learning needs.  It should be used as a tool for building bridges from one's Discourse to important learning concepts.  Often, Primary Discourses are misunderstood or ignored altogether.  All adolescents need multiple exposures to a variety of Discourses over time.  Cultural responsiveness should allow students to navigate across communities unlike their own.  But cultural responsiveness should not stop there.  The outcome of cultural responsiveness should be that there are changes in content knowledge and changes in classrooms that motivate and engage students.  Essentially, the world should be transformed through explicit discursive practices.  The end of the chapter gives some examples of teachers using culturally responsive pedagogy in their own classrooms.  Some of the best practices include explicit vocabulary instruction, real world simulations, scaffolding student efforts, and project-based units.  The teachers also do not assume that a person's heritage ensures a connection to their students' everyday experiences.  They work to build genuine interest and relationships with their students.  

Afflerbach
This chapter begins by asking three important assessment questions: "Why do we asses, what do we asses, and how do we assess".  To determine the answers to these questions, one must understand that reading is not just decoding words; it is comprehending.  Furthermore, adolescent reading is an ongoing process which requires the use of many skills and strategies to construct meaning.  Currently, a big problem with adolescent reading assessments is that they do not focus as much on the strategies used as on the content-area learning that has occurred.  Good reading assessments should have a cognition (what students do when they read), observation (assessing critical components of reading success), and interpretation (inferences we make from assessments) component.  The CURRV framework allows teachers to determine the appropriateness of a reading assessment.  Many state- or federally-mandated reading assessments are not appropriate or useful.  Several types of reading assessments for adolescents include performance assessments which typically involve a rubric; portfolio assessments, which can and should be adapted and actively used over time; teacher observation and questioning; and high stakes testing, which typically does not offer much help for teachers in the way of instruction.  The chapter closes by highlighting the need for professional development that places assessments in teachers' hands.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
Ideally, assessments will provide teachers with knowledge about how to modify their instruction so that students have the skills they need to become successful readers.  However, there are now so many caveats to assessing literacy in adolescents, such as the many text forms now available and the wide variety of students who need additional supports.  Also, many students who read well outside of school struggle with academic texts.  A content-area reading assessment (CARI) can assess a student's reading processes and direct instruction for large group, small group, or individuals.  Sections normally found in a CARI include using book parts, understanding visual information, understanding content vocabulary, determining and summarizing key ideas, and creating study reading aids.  By looking at the results from a CARI, teachers can determine patterns of errors and plan their lessons accordingly.  Word knowledge in adolescents must also be assessed.  To do this, teachers can provide a vocabulary self-awareness chart to which students can return and modify as they read.  Self-awareness charts help the teacher see which students need explicit vocabulary instruction before, during, and after reading.  Finally, since all types of media have become popular with today's students, they can be assessed using various forms of it.  One example in the chapter shows a teacher using a clip from Shrek 2 to ask questions and guide students through a blog response.

Responses

Text-to-Text
In our staff meetings, we have been discussing and reading about effective assessments because the school where I work typically has lower test scores due to the diverse population that we serve.  When we receive our test scores from the state each year, our school's effectiveness is determined by them, which I don't think is fair.  The Afflerbach reading really resonated with me because it, along with many of the other things that we have been reading in our meetings, pointed out that high-stakes tests are the least effective types of assessments.  With the Marzano framework, our school has chosen to focus a lot on teacher observation and questioning as a form of assessment.  This not only gives immediate, but fairly accurate results.

Text-to-Self
When I think about the types of assessments that I did when I was in school, I am encouraged by how many different types of assessments we now offer our students.  Computerized assessments were not even thought of for many years!  When I was in the gifted program in elementary school, we often had opportunities to be creative in the ways that we demonstrated our knowledge, but in the regular classroom, I remember a lot of multiple choice and essay tests.  I don't feel that these, or high-stakes testing, accurately measured my knowledge.  I always got test anxiety before them and didn't do as well as I knew I could.  I appreciated my gifted teacher for taking our diverse minds and backgrounds into account when she created assessments or allowed us to do inquiry-based learning.  The options available to students now are so much greater, if teachers indeed choose to use effective assessments.

Text-to-World
When I think about how the U.S. lags behind so many other countries in the realm of education, I wonder how much of this has to do with the assessments that are used.  Obviously, the United States is a productive country with intelligent citizens, but studies over and over have shown that our education is lacking.  It would be interesting to see how American students perform on the exact same test that is given to, say, Finnish students.  I would also be curious to know what kinds of assessments are given in the classroom in those other countries, such as whether they allow project-based learning or if they assess using media.

Questions

1.  What are your thoughts on high-stakes testing?  Do you think that schools should be "graded" based on their performance on these tests?

2.  Does your school or district provide much professional development about assessments?  The readings mentioned the need for this, but the actuality seems rare!

Multiple Literacies, New Literacies, and Multimodality

Synthesis:

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas Ch. 4
This chapter discusses the importance of studying discourse in order to help adolescents develop 21st-century literacies.  Discourse is "a structure that frames a social or cultural group's habits of interpretation and their related literacies."  Every person has an "identity kit" that defines social expectations and the way he or she interacts with others.  Every person also has a Primary Discourse and a Secondary Discourse.  The Primary Discourse is developed at home and taken into a Secondary Discourse, such as school.  Primary Discourses are learned; Secondary Discourses are acquired.  Often, Primary and Secondary Discourses do not match.  When this occurs, four things can happen: 1) the person assumes the Secondary Discourse, 2) the person rejects the Secondary Discourse, thereby shutting himself out of conversations, 3) the person learns enough about the Secondary Discourse to get by, or 4) the person asserts Primary Discourse literacies into Secondary Discourses and eventually makes changes in the Secondary Discourse itself (called a borderland discourse).  Obviously, the fourth scenario is ideal.  When students are explicitly taught about both discourses, they are then able to choose different literacy practices that are appropriate for different times and settings.  Teachers must be sure to respect a student's Primary Discourse while still teaching metacognitive thinking strategies that help him or her in other discourses.  Through explicit teaching about discourses, students' literacy skills mold them into great communicators, wise citizens, and deep thinkers.  They are able to understand multiple perspectives and value diversity, as well.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas Ch. 16
The authors begin this chapter by highlighting the fact that today's adolescents have never known a world without multimodal ways of communicating.  Hence, teachers must find a way to incorporate all of these modes into the classroom in a way that is meaningful to their students.  The chapter gives a scenario of one teacher, Deborah, and the ways that she does this.  First, she layers multiple texts (digital and traditional) to create meaning for her students.  The authors are quick to point out that while Deborah is teaching CCSS in her class, she is not teaching to the standards.  She takes a new literacies stance that provides many opportunities for guided participation and collaborative learning.  When lessons are designed so that one event is shown across multiple texts, students are more able to see how the mode of the event shows different pieces and perspectives of the same story.  Multiple texts also allow opportunities for problem posing and thinking critically.  When multiple modes are used in the classroom, students are more likely to make personal connections, connections to popular culture, and connections to current events.  Students gain a complex, yet concrete understanding of a subject when multimodality is employed.

Coiro
In this reading, the importance of online reading comprehension is explored.  There are many things that skilled online readers do offline which can be carried over, such as using prior knowledge, making inferences, and monitoring their own comprehension.  However, the ability to navigate the Internet is not the same as being able to comprehend the information on it, so students must explicitly be taught this skill by using five guidelines.  The first guideline is to make explicit the relationships between offline and online reading comprehension strategies,  This includes encouraging students to compare text features and their purposes, providing think-aloud models (or allowing students to construct their own), and embedding strategy lessons into online curriculum.  The second guideline is to honor the literacies that students bring to school with them each day.  It must be recognized that each student has multiple literacy contributions.  Also, students need to be able to engage not only in personal online reading tasks, but academic ones.  And, students must have space to explore multiple text forms.  Guideline 3 states that expectations for new classroom roles/relationships during online projects must be clarified.  When collaborating with peers, students should learn to respect one another's view points.  Teachers should provide explicit instruction while also giving space for peer collaboration.  Guideline 4 suggests providing time for students to develop positive attitudes toward Internet learning and communication.  Student effort should be focused on, as opposed to ability, and online inquiry projects can help, as well.  The fifth guideline discusses using self, peer, and teacher assessments to inform instruction about reading and understanding the internet.  Not only should students be receiving feedback from their teachers, but they must learn to reflect on their own strategy use and create their own reading comprehension goals.  Assessments should be both formal and informal.

Kim and Kamil
As technology has continued to be more prevalent in our world, students are now expected to have a wider range of skills and competencies related to such growth.  Computerized literacy instruction for adolescents is becoming more common and has, in some studies, been shown to help with reading comprehension.  However, many other factors must be considered which can affect learning and implementation.  One common mistake in thinking is that students (and adults) are easily able to process multiple modes of transmitting information, when actually, students need to be taught strategies and methods for doing so.  It can be difficult to understand the meaning of hypertext and complex graphics.  Multiple studies have shown that students perform best when given a high level of guidance on the computer.  Simply providing a variety of options is insufficient for improving reading comprehension.  As far as writing instruction on the computer, results vary.  The most consistent finding is that students need lots of time to interact with computer-based writing instruction.  Students do develop many social skills on the Internet.  Computer-based formats may encourage some shy students to participate more.  Also, the more often students are able to interact with the computer, the greater the improvements in their attitudes toward it.  Having access to computers at school and at home reduces student anxiety.  Furthermore, boys typically display a more positive attitude toward technology than girls.  All in all, computer instruction can be effective when students are provided with structured guidelines to help them navigate multimedia successfully.  

Responses

Text-to-Text
Many of our readings in this class have focused on the advent of technology and how best to use it in the classroom.  One thing that all of the readings have in common is that, as teachers, we cannot afford to simply avoid and/or ignore technology any longer.  Not only can new literacies be motivating to students, but they can also improve reading comprehension and writing skills if used appropriately.

Text-to-Self
Honestly, technology scares me at times.  I really related to the part in the Kim and Kamil reading which talked about how boys are commonly more motivated by technology and multiple/new literacies than are girls.  However, these readings reiterated to me the importance of continuing to find ways to include technology in my classroom.  I do think that I need more instruction and training for knowing how to do so.  Sometimes I feel like people are always saying, "Use technology in your classroom!" and expecting us to do it but then not providing training or tangible ways for us to make it effective.

Text-to-World
As technology continues to become more prevalent across the globe, students must know how to interact with it in order to be successful in their future professional work and daily communications with others.  While parents do play a role in providing access to and instruction about technology, teachers ultimately are responsible for creating technologically literate students.  The more opportunities my students have to interact with technology in my classroom, the more successful they are likely to be when they leave it.  

Questions

1.  Do you explicitly teach your students about Primary and Secondary Discourses?  If so, what does this look like in your classroom?  If not, please elaborate.

2.  Elementary teachers- how do you use multiple literacies in your classrooms?  I do use my Intelligent Classroom whiteboard pretty frequently, but I'm always looking for new, engaging ideas!

ELL/EAL Students

Synthesis

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
This chapter begins by discussing the importance of using correct terminology when referring to students whose native language is not English.  The text refers to these students as EAL (English is an additional language) instead of English language learners because EAL expresses a more holistic view of them.  The authors also discuss the vast differences among EAL students.  These differences include religious beliefs, immigration histories, prior educational experiences, and range of competencies.  With the implementation of CCSS, all content-area teachers are now required to present knowledge in a way that meets every student, including those who are learning English as an additional language.  Some ways meet EAL students exactly where they are is by facilitating home-school communication, believing in the potential of these students and holding high expectations for them, and modifying instruction to meet specific academic and linguistic needs.  As far as modifying instruction, content-area teachers need to place language at the forefront of all of their instruction.  This may look like close and careful reading of texts, deconstruction of "juicy sentences," and annotation.  While focusing an extensive amount of time on one sentence may seem wasteful, in reality, this provides the kind of scaffolding that EAL students will need to read more complex texts.  Furthermore, close reading and annotation provide opportunities for multiple readings of the same text.  The importance of oral language also cannot be overstated.  Content-area teachers need to provide active learning for their EAL students through conversations that emphasize using academic language appropriately.  These conversations must be monitored and scaffolded for student success.  The chapter concludes with an example of a series of American history lessons beginning with direct instruction, moving to expert groups and mixed groups, and concluding with assessment.

Garcia and Godina
According to these authors, over 2/3 of all ELLs are Latino, and while these students may be able to fluently speak a second language, they are not necessarily proficient in their academic English.  Teachers in secondary schools must work to understand ELLs.  Many ELLs are highly mobile, and their parents tend to defer authority regarding education to teachers and other school officials.  Many families of ELL students want to be involved but are unsure of how to do so.  The text states that ELLs most commonly drop out of school due to grade retention, standardized testing, and tracking, rather than parental influences.  Lack of coordination among all teachers within the school is another factor that hinders ELL students.  Even students who are knowledgeable in their native language typically need 4-6 years to perform at grade level in English.  Several research studies have shown strategies that have helped ELLs be successful.  These include the ability to make inferences, use prior knowledge, make use of cognates, and apply strategies across languages.  Students who are successful also are more content with general understandings of a text than specific vocabulary knowledge.  The writers of this text advocate a process approach to literacy in which students complete inquiry based projects and have ample opportunities for peer interactions.  In addition to process approaches, though, ELLs also need structured writing opportunities.  Other strategies that are effective include multiple readings of the same text for fluency, Collaborative Strategic Reading (teaches comprehension strategies and cooperative learning), use of realia, and intensive vocabulary support.  One extremely important point that may seem counterintuitive is the need for continued instruction in a student's native language to build academic proficiency, not just oral proficiency.  Sheltered techniques should be provided.

Responses:

Text-to-text
To be quite honest, I have not read many texts about English Language Learners before.  However, in a staff meeting several weeks ago, we had an ELL teacher come and talk to our staff about techniques to use to help these students.  I was reminded of what she said as I read the Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas book this week because this teacher talked about strategies that are effective for all students.  The text this week mentioned that all teachers are responsible for meeting each student exactly where he or she is and helping him or her become academically proficient.  Our speaker at the meeting mentioned basically the same thing.  She said that incorporating some of the strategies discussed (realia, cooperative learning, etc.) into our classroom would certainly help our English Language Learners, but in reality, they would help everyone.  This was helpful for me to hear because there are so many diverse needs to meet within the classroom that it can be overwhelming, but some instructional strategies really are great for all students.

Text-to-self
These readings were insightful to me because I often make many of the incorrect assumptions that were mentioned in the text.  I often think that ELL students' parents do not want to be involved in their schooling, that ELLs need to "hurry up" and learn English (as opposed to receiving continued instruction in their native language), and that all ELL students learn basically the same way.  Reading these texts will, I believe, help me be a better teacher because I now have a better understanding of who these students are, where they come from, and the best ways to meet them where they are.  Though I do not have any ELLs in my classroom this year, I know that I will in the future, and I want to be able to help them be successful, not just in my classroom, but in their lives.

Text-to-world
As more and more immigrants are coming to the United States from all around the world, our demands to teach them effectively will continue to rise.  While new cultures are being infused into our culture here, we, as teachers, are responsible for helping to create a culture that is inclusive and inviting for everyone by making sure that individual students in our classroom are a part of it.  We can do this by helping them to understand our language.  Understanding goes further than speaking; understanding requires a deep knowledge of academic vocabulary and comprehension, which we can help to provide.  In teaching language to our students, we open up a whole new world of opportunities for them.

Questions:

1.  As a classroom teacher in elementary school, how can I work with our ELL teacher to make sure that we maintain consistency between our classrooms?  As one of the texts mentioned, the ELL teachers in schools often use their own curriculum, and I'm wondering how to make the two align.

2.  Are ELL teachers hired based on the languages they teach?  I'm just curious.  I have a friend who is an ELL teacher, and she only knows how to speak Spanish and English.  I can't help but think that ELL teachers would need to have at least a basic knowledge of a variety of languages.

Differentiation/Strategies for Struggling Adolescent Readers

Synthesis

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
Chapter 5
This chapter focuses on ways to work with struggling adolescent readers by changing their reading identities.  At the beginning of the chapter, the authors discuss the fact that many of the experiences that adolescents have had with literacy simply reinforce the belief that they are unlikely to succeed.  Hence, students need to "receive instruction that takes their reading identities into account."  There are several ways to begin to change reading identities, such as teaching students to take charge of their own reading development.  This requires asking deep questions of students to engage them in their learning.  Another way to begin to change reading identities is to celebrate struggles.  Teachers need to "normalize" struggles by making their class understand that everyone struggles with reading from time to time.  By sharing and discussing difficulties, struggling readers can hear how others tackle and overcome their challenges.  When teachers actively employ some of these strategies, they may begin to see positive changes in their students' reading identities within 2-3 months.  As identities begin to change, teachers should beware of "disruptive talk," which "devalues the ideas of another."

Chapter 15
Textbook comprehension tends to be difficult for adolescents, particularly those who already struggle with reading.  However, it is important to note that students who are proficient in other areas can still struggle with reading a textbook.  While the authors recommend that teachers use forms of text other than the textbook, it remains crucial that content-area teachers teach students strategies for understanding textbooks.  To engage students, teachers should have them participate in pre-reading activities, such as anticipation guides, comprehension canopies, or creating text sets.  After pre-reading, teacher must then shift their focus to "embedded comprehension instruction" to promote independence for students while they are reading a subject-area textbook.  Students also need explicit strategy instruction, particularly the ability to use text features.  Teachers can guide comprehension by using interactive reading guides and QARs (question-answer relationships).  When teaching all of these strategies, teachers should promote a gradual release of responsibility while working with teachers in other content areas to reinforce and "give a second dose" of a strategy previously taught.

Chapter 18
Differentiated instruction is absolutely necessary in the classroom so that all students can be successful.  As mentioned in the text, instruction can be differentiated "for different sections of the same class, for groups of learners with similar needs, and for individual learners."  Also according to the text, modifications can be made to content, process, product, and assessment.  The theory of multiple intelligences says that not all students learn the same way; therefore, they should be provided with a variety of learning methods including visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.  Universal design for learning (UDL) is another way of differentiation that provides "multiple means of representation, multiple means of action and expression, and multiple means of engagement."  Some examples of UDL include the choice of working in pairs, reading aloud, or using interactive visuals.  Finally, the Sheltered Instructional Observation Protocol (SIOP) model used for English language learners can be useful for all students as it sets content and language objectives for each lesson.  The end of the chapter gives a scenario in Ms. Taylor's 10th grade English classroom in which she unpacks a Common Core State Standard and gives her students a variety of options to help them appropriately satisfy the demands of the standard.

Fisher and Frey
This article discusses the fact that while adolescents are writing more than ever before, their writing scores are not improving.  This is because teachers are "causing" writing, as opposed to actually giving valid instruction about how to do it.  As suggested in other readings, the writers of this text note the importance of gradually releasing responsibility to students.  A case study was done on a class of students with particularly rough lives outside of school.  A Language Experience Approach (LEA) was used in this class.  In this model, students began a writing topic by talking about it first.  The reading and writing in the class was initially controlled by the teacher, but as students became more comfortable with each other and their teacher, the model moved to a more interactive approach.  Students could then use writing models and generative sentences to begin to construct more of their own writing.  Students also engaged in "power writing," which focuses on writing as much as possible in a short amount of time.  Independent, open-ended writing was the last component of the model.  The LEA method proved to be very successful for students in both reading and writing.  Students began to construct pieces that they did not realize they were capable of composing, and they felt that people actually wanted to read and listen to their work.

Responses

Text-to-Text
My background is in special education, so I have read many texts about differentiation, and all of them are different and insightful!  In fact, I took a whole class on UDL.  One major difference I noticed in this week's readings as opposed to readings I did for my UDL class is that my class focused mostly on using technology, whereas the whole principle of UDL is much larger than just technology.  Technology is one aspect of UDL, but not the only one.  I have also read a lot about the importance of understanding students' identities, as mentioned in Chapter 5.  Struggling students generally have a poor view of themselves, not only has readers, but as learners in general.  This week's text pointed out a new concept to me, though.  I try to normalize struggles in my special education resource classroom, but this is not generally done in general education classroom.  Chapter 5 made me realize that challenges need to be discussed across all content areas, perhaps even in AP classes!

Text-to-Self
I was encouraged by the readings this week because I realized that many of the strategies mentioned are ones that I already use in my classroom.  Because all of the students that I work with have learning disabilities, I feel that I am constantly having to be creative in my ways of presenting information in a way that makes sense to them.  As a special education teacher, it is part of my job to modify work so that students have different means of presenting their knowledge.  For example, an essay is not usually a good method of presentation for a student with a reading disability, so I might come up with a "choice menu" for a student that meets the general education teacher's requirements without frustrating the student.  However, there is always room to grow, and I would like to try some new strategies.  Particularly, I like the idea of creating text sets.  I do this to a certain degree, but I am sure that the school librarian could help me branch out even more in this area to include more resources.

Text-to-World
Of all of the texts that we have read this semester, I feel that this week's have the greatest text-to-world applications.  UDL in particular has applications that can be applied everywhere.  It seems that even the corporate world is beginning to realize the value of some of the topics mentioned in these chapters.  Whereas companies used to have business meetings that all looked exactly the same, major corporations are now starting to realize that people all learn differently and are drifting away from traditional, lecture-style presentations.  College classes, as well, are providing different ways for students to listen and respond.  Differentiation begins in the classroom, but it certainly carries over into life applications.  Most people feel more successful when given choices in their learning.

Questions

1.  I would be interested to hear some specific ways that you, as teachers, provide differentiation for your students in class.

2.   If you are using the LEA model in your classroom, how do you balance it with the demands of high-stakes testing?  I think that it is a wonderful model; I just worry that students also need to know how to write in a prescribed format for a test (unfortunately).

Writing Disciplinary Texts

Synthesis:

McKeough
This author begins the chapter by discussing how the CCSS for writing offer "a developmental roadmap of competencies."  However, the CCSS are limited, so McKeough goes on to describe how specifically to use them in the classroom.  In a "trickster tale" by fourth-grade student Jessica, she follows the CCSS standards by writing a narrative, establishing a situation, introducing characters, organizing an event sequence, using dialogue, incorporating transitional words and concrete phrases, and providing a conclusion.  However, her knowledge goes beyond what the CCSS require because she includes sequentiality, particularity, intentional states, and canonicity and breach (CCSS do not focus on the latter two).  The chapter then goes on to demonstrate the developmental change in character and story breach.  Even before first grade, students understand trouble and character development.  By third grade, a complicated event is often introduced that may alter one or more characters' mental state.  In fifth grade, students should be able to include "a resolution that fully addresses the problems and complications.  As well, their characters' motivations are made clearer in relation to trouble they experience."  During the middle school years, a great change occurs in students' writing.  Character traits are more thoroughly explained as a result of current or prior events that happened to the character.  The characters become increasingly more psychologically complex.  In high school, students begin to include literary devices such as social similes and metaphors, flashback and foreshadowing, paradoxical consequences, and perspective taking.  To support the development of narrative writing in the classroom, students must be taught to "read with a writer's eye."  They must "pay attention to literary elements and techniques so that they can be used in one's own writing."  First, though, students must read for understanding.  The authors of the chapter created developmentally based rubrics to assist teachers with RwWE activities.  These rubrics are tailored to specific grade levels and always include a link to writing.  This intentional use of rubrics begins as early as first grade and allows teachers to look across the grade levels to "develop an understanding of how knowledge and skills build from less to more complex."  Teachers need to recognize each individual student's capabilities and build on those.  

Ferretti and Lewis
This chapter about argumentative writing states that while young children are able to argue, they are not consistently taught how to do it effectively and consequently ignore important perspectives, even their own.  Hence, students must be taught to acknowledge opposing perspectives, as argumentation is "a constellation of propositions."  Students also must know how to judge arguments by using critical standards, as well as how to defend arguments by answering critical questions.  Argument is dialogue, and argumentative writing is "a problem-solving process."  Teachers are often afraid to introduce activities that have the potential for breeding conflict, but students actually need "real-world social contexts for argumentative writing."  To "bridge the gap" between written argument and person-to-person argument, students need opportunities for collaborative experiences.  Prewriting should be done prior to these interactions. Furthermore, students needs support and scaffolding during all aspects of the writing process for argumentative essarys.  The self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) model was designed with this in mind through six phases of instruction.  Other strategies are detailed, such as TREE for younger students and STOP and DARE for older students.  AIMS, SCAN, and ASCQ are other variants of the SRSD approach.  Finally, it is important to remember that "students must be able to analyze and interpret literature before they are able to write analytic arguments about it."  And as always for historical arguments, students must engage in sourcing, contextualization, and corroboration.

Responses:

Text-to-Text
In all of our readings last week, the authors discussed the importance of giving students time to write daily.  While the readings this week did not specifically state that particular point, it is implied because the strategies mentioned take a lot of time and practice.  I was also reminded through the readings that students need explicit feedback if they are to improve their writing.  This was mentioned last week in the readings when they referred to individual writing conferences with students.  The McKeough reading reminded me of some readings I have done in early childhood classes which discuss the developmental stages of writing.  Just as young children progress through different stages in the writing process (scribbling, mock handwriting, emergent, etc.), older children progress through different stages, as well.  It is helpful for teachers at all levels to be able to look across the different grade levels so that they can more effectively point their current students in the right direction.

Text-to-Self
While I have learned a lot from the readings that we have been doing this year, some of the strategies mentioned have been hard for me to apply in my own classroom because I teach such young children.  I was very excited that the readings this week gave explicit strategies for me to use with my students.  I believe that writing is so important, and we cannot expect students to be good writers as adolescents if we do not give them a strong writing foundation in their early years first.  I am particularly looking forward to doing more narrative writing with my students.  This may have to be in the form of interactive writing only initially, but I realized that I don't practice this kind of writing with my students nearly often enough.  As the texts mentioned, teachers (myself included) tend to focus primarily on expository writing, which is obviously important, but not exclusively.

Text-to-World
I can't help but think that if we really engage students with the kind of argumentative writing and discussions that were mentioned, our world will be a much better place.  For one thing, our politicians will know how to argue better, and as voters, students will actually understand the arguments.  It seems that the majority of voters vote a certain way because they are ill-informed, and I believe that this could go back to the way that those same voters were taught about argumentative writing in school.  Many people today do not know how to consider opposing viewpoints or even defend their own point of view.  If they are lucky, high school students may have had one speech class during their school years in which they were taught how to debate, but this could so easily be expanded upon in all ELA classes so that we have a more informed citizenry.

Questions:

1.  One of the readings talked about teachers being afraid to introduce topics that could provoke conflict, and I find myself fitting into this category of teachers!  Should there be topics that are always "off-limits," or should I, as a teacher, just know how to appropriately direct arguments while allowing all topics?  Sometimes it is difficult for me to not share my own viewpoint, as well.

2.   Now that I know how narrative writing progresses developmentally through different grade levels, what are some good ways to support those students who I notice are not where they should be developmentally?

Writing Instruction

Synthesis:

Sweeny
This article focuses mainly on the "new literacies" that have developed for adolescents in the past few years.  These literacies include text messaging, instant messaging, and Facebook, among others.  Many students do not consider these to be literacies at all; reading a writing with their friends via phones or social media is something completely separate to them when compared to the reading and writing that they do in school.  Many teachers are uncomfortable with the development of these new literacies.  Whereas today's students can be considered "natives" in the world of digital media, teachers are often "immigrants."  Teachers sometimes consider their lack of knowledge intimidating and do not know how to effectively incorporate new literacies into their writing instruction.  The good news is that this can be done incrementally.  Some Internet resources for adolescents include videos, music, and Internet workshops.  These workshops are interactive and provide suggestions and feedback to young writers.  Students also have access to writing communities on the Internet, during which they can find author mentors to help them improve upon their writing.  Of course, students will still need to revise their writing, and there are many resources online for them to do this.  Messaging, apps, and online forums are additional resources that can be beneficial.  Using some or all of these new literacies in the classroom can help adolescent students become more engaged in the writing process.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
The unifying theme of this chapter seemed to be that students need to have choices when it comes to writing.  As teachers, we often direct adolescents' writing by choosing a theme or topic for them and then prescribing the method of responding to that theme or topic.  All good writers must think about their thought processes while they are writing and even rewrite entire chunks of their compositions as their thoughts change (not mere editing).  Students need time and opportunities to do this, and teachers need to be more accepting of the thoughts and ideas that students have for their own writing.  Students often have interests outside of school that would be great ideas for composition starters, and they have their own ways of expressing their ideas about such interests (blogs, texting, social networking, etc.).  Teachers should expand their idea of what "literacy" is to allow students to include these literacies in their classroom.  However, teachers should also build on these views of literacy and help improve student writing in certain ways.  These ways might include writers' notebooks or writing for an audience.  Simply sharing their work with others will often motivate young authors to write more.  The important thing is that students have time for writing in class every day, and that teachers meet with students for individual writing conferences.

Jetton and Shanahan
This reading was similar to the previous one in that it talks about giving students choices in their writing.  It refers to students as "decision makers."  They not only choose their topic for writing, but they can choose how to write about that topic (the genre).  A five-paragraph essay might not be as appropriate in some instances as a letter, for example.  Sometimes, adolescent writers must write for a certain purpose, and in these cases, they must learn how to adapt to the requirements given.  Furthermore, adolescents must make choices about the audience for which they are writing.  Some of these audiences will provoke more passionate writings than others.  Finally, when adolescent writers have finished their writing, they must evaluate it.  Supportive evaluations by themselves, peers, or targeted audiences not only improve students' current writing, but encourage them to continue writing in the future because they realize that their writing is meaningful.  They are motivated to write because of the responses they get.

Responses

Text-to-Text
Once again, our readings this week have discussed the importance of giving students choices to engage them in literacy.  In one of our readings from a previous week, the authors talked about how teachers can assign specific books to read sometimes but should also allow time for students to read books of their own choosing.  This especially reminded me of the readings this week because students are often taught to write with a specific end in mind (to pass a state exam, for example).  While teachers do need to teach their students to write to this end, they do not have to write this way all year long.  Perhaps during the first semester, as one of the readings mentioned, students can make more choices about their writing, and then teachers can give more direction and provide more restrictions during the second semester.

Text-to-World
The readings this week constantly reminded me of how much our world has changed over the past few years (even since I have been born).  I didn't get a cell phone until I was sixteen and learning how to drive, and now many five- and six-year-olds already have phones and know how to send text messages.  As technology continues to change across the globe, so will literacy.  As teachers, we must be flexible to these universal changes and learn how technology can even be advantageous in our classrooms as far as reading and writing are concerned.  The resources available to us are vast if only we know how to use them and how to direct our students to use them appropriately!

Text-to-Self
I love writing, but only in certain situations.  I was reminded of this in our readings this week as I thought about the power of choice in writing.  Until very recently, I kept a personal blog, on which I wrote about literally anything that I thought was important or interesting.  My topics varied, but I was always the one choosing them.  I got to direct my own writing, and I loved it.  Writing was an escape for me.  However, I strongly dislike writing papers for class, or writing for other blogs as a ghost writer.  The reason is that I feel constrained to the restrictions placed upon me and don't feel that I have the choices available to me to make my writing powerful.  I'm not fully able to express my thoughts, it seems.  Everyone really needs choices when writing!

Questions

1.  How much choice should I give my elementary school students in writing?  I strongly believe in the value of some choice, but at this age, it seems like they are still in need of lots of direction (especially since I teach special education).  How can I find a balance?

2.  None of the readings this week talked much about interactive writing in class.  It seemed like the focus was more on independent writing with individual writing conferences.  Is interactive writing an important part of the writing process and if so, what resources are available to help me teach it more effectively?

Disciplinary Literacy- History and Arts

Synthesis:

Jetton and Shanahan Ch. 8
This chapter explores the reactions of two students, Brad and Ayesha, as they read two different and somewhat conflicting history texts.  Because the students have different protocols for reading history, their comprehension not only differs from each other, but also from expert history readers.  On the one hand, Brad makes assumptions that the history textbook is superior to all other history texts.  He accepts information from the textbook as fact and disregards personal accounts because, in his mind, the narrator of history textbooks is always omniscient.  Ayesha, on the other hand, does enjoy entertaining other perspectives about history as she reads.  She wants to read all of the available texts first before making a decision about any of them.  However, though she considers other perspectives, Ayesha does not have effective strategies for determining which text is the most reliable.  Furthermore, Brad's and Ayesha's personal identities have much to do with their interpretations of a text.  The authors then go on to describe the protocols of expert history readers.  These readers realize that texts do not always mean what they say and that texts must be read in the context in which they were produced.  Even when expert readers do come to a conclusion about a set of history texts, they must be prepared to revise their conclusion as they source, corroborate, and contextualize.  Because history texts often contain so many biases, students such as Brad and Ayesha must be directly taught how to form appropriate protocols for reading them.

Jetton and Shanahan Ch. 9
This chapter discusses literacy in the arts, specifically music and the visual arts.  The underlying theme of the chapter is that teachers and students must reconsider what is "text" and "literacy."  Literacy in the arts is important because art can be included in other disciplines and because the arts help adolescents make sense of their worlds (p.232).  The chapter first talks about music texts, which include many non-traditional texts, such as hand signals, scores, sheet music, and mime.  The Common Core standards for music emphasize performing, listening, contemplating, and creating literacies.  There are many ways to ensure that these standards are met.  Some of them include improvisation, notation, rehearsal, and sight-reading.  The constructivist approach is widely accepted in music literacy.  This approach allows students to create their own understandings of music (p. 249).  As with music, the visual arts contain many non-traditional texts.  Because pottery, sculptures, and paintings are all read to be interpreted, they can be considered texts.  However, traditional textbooks and technical books are still important.  Standards for the visual arts emphasize creating, problem-solving, reflecting, and critiquing.  Similar to music, students are encouraged to create their own art in order to have a more meaningful understanding of it.  In both music and visual arts, modeling is extremely important.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
Before students reach high school, it can be argued that they read and can get away with approaching virtually all types of texts in the same manner.  However, once students hit ninth grade, it becomes increasingly more important that they read a history text differently than, say, a science text.  In history texts, the authors have different purposes.  They might be trying to convince the readers to take a certain perspective on an event.  Readers must consider this as they source the history texts.  Also, readers must learn to corroborate, or compare the text with others written about the same topic.  Finally, they must contextualize.  It is always important to consider the context in which a text was written before determining its validity.  Adolescent readers of history must also carefully consider the vocabulary that is used in history texts, as it can be used to persuade them a certain way.  Some of the words used are ones that we do not necessarily include in our daily vocabulary anymore, and the sentence structure of history texts can be tricky.  In short, readers of history texts need to remember that history is not just a list of dates and events.  Its complexity must be considered, as there can be many causes and effects for the same event, and that events can be correlated, but one did not necessarily cause the other.  

Responses

Text-to-Text
The readings this week were quite unlike any I have ever read before, so I had never even considered many of the things that were included in the chapters.  However, it does seem that most of our readings in this class mention the importance of direct instruction for reading strategies.  This point was especially emphasized in the Jetton and Shanahan chapter about history protocols.  Students cannot be expected to create effective protocols on their own; this skill, like many others, must be modeled and practiced.

Text-to-Self
I am looking at history entirely differently after reading these chapters!  I always have seen the textbook as authoritative and have hardly considered other perspectives.  I never before viewed history as a story; instead, I saw it as a list of events that happened in a certain time and place.  I'm sure I would have enjoyed history a lot more in school if I had had some of the reading protocols described.  Also, I was in band for much of my life, so I am a fluent reader in music, but I never before considered that "reading" was, in fact, what I was doing.  To me, music notes were music notes, not text.  I have no memories of art in middle school or high school.  Obviously, it did not make a big impact on me, and I do not think that my teachers made an effort to include in it their classrooms.

Text-to-World
I truly believe that music and art are both so valuable, especially to teenagers who are trying to make sense of an often senseless world.  Hence, it is so important to teach them how to access the texts found in these subjects.  If they are not literate in music or in the visual arts, two avenues of communication are essentially cut off for them.  I have often thought that music expresses thoughts and feelings from the soul that words cannot.  This goes to show that "text" is not necessarily just words.  Literacy is literally everywhere.

Questions

1.  Why are students in elementary school required to take music classes but not art classes?  To me, both seem equally important, and a love for either often starts at an early age.

2.  What are some practical ways for me to include the visual arts in my classroom when I do not feel literate in them myself?  I feel fairly competent in my ability to include music, but the arts is a whole other subject!

3.  What are some good sources for history texts beside the textbook?  I'm thinking of websites that maybe list primary sources, etc.  

Disciplinary Text- Science

Synthesis

Jetton and Shanahan
The authors of this chapter began by stating that different types of scientists view and use science texts differently.  For example, chemists and biologists do not read science texts the same way because they are looking for different information.  Because the vocabulary in science texts is often difficult, science teachers have a tendency to do away with textbooks entirely.  This is detrimental because students need practice in reading science texts so that they are prepared for college courses and the scientific world.  Science texts are also able to overcome many misconceptions that adolescent students often have.  An example of gravity was given.  In the experiment, students in the class failed to account for errors, and their results were skewed.  Expert scientists spend much of their time reading and writing, so young scientists must learn to do the same.  Something important to note is that scientists generally read for understanding first.  Once they have a good grasp of the given concept, they then go back and critique the text.  The authors of the chapter mention several challenges to reading science texts: vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, and writing.  Writing is a particular challenge because students must learn to include graphs, charts, and equations in their explanations.  There are also several different types of writing that one can do for science, and precision is extremely important in all types of scientific writing.  The authors also stated that while general literacy strategies do not need to be thrown completely out the window, they certainly must be modified in order to be useful in the science classroom.  Several specific strategies for helping students through their science texts included vocabulary notebooks, List-Group-Label, and RAFT (Role/Audience/Format/Topic).  In sum, science teachers should work together with literacy specialists to determine what works best for their particular classrooms.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
This chapter presented an 11th-grade student, Eduardo, who struggled with reading and science, as well as his teacher, Will, and the strategies that Will used to help Eduardo be successful.  At the beginning of the study, Eduardo did not like to participate in class discussions, was frequently absent, and was generally non-compliant in class.  By the end of the study, Eduardo had completely changed.  Not only did he participate in ongoing class discussions, but he even began tutoring other students and made a goal of becoming an engineer one day.  Will used the "Reading Apprenticeship" approach in his Introduction to Chemistry class.  This approach "normalizes struggle" and focuses on effort instead of performance.  As Eduardo began to participate in class assignments such as preambles, reading logs, and expert groups, he found things in common with other student groups and began to contribute to their discussions.  Will taught Eduardo how to ask questions of a text as he was reading it and allowed him to make up late work for up to 80%.  This encouraged Eduardo because he could attain a passing grade in Will's class, even when he was absent.  When Eduardo reflected on the things that made him successful in his Intro to Chemistry class, he talked about Dr. Brown's care for him as an individual, as well as being able to work with partners and using reading logs.  "Negotiating success" had a positive effect on Eduardo and other students in Will's class.

Responses

Text-to-Text
In the Jetton and Shanahan text, I was reminded of the way that other texts have discussed establishing a purpose for reading.  Scientists, as mentioned, usually read for understanding first and then read for critique.  Other texts we have read have talked about the importance of establishing a purpose because this improves comprehension and helps students make appropriate connections to the text.  In the chapter about Eduardo, I was reminded of several other texts we have read which discuss the importance of engagement and motivation.  Much of Eduardo's success can be, I believe, attributed to his teacher's effort to engage him on a personal level and negotiate success.  Literacy skills can be improved this way in many different kinds of classrooms.

Text-to-Self
When I was reading about Eduardo's story, I was reminded of my own experience in eighth grade science.  My lab partner never made any efforts to help me with things I didn't understand, and consequently, I came to hate eighth grade science.  This chapter discussed the importance of collaboration and class discussions, and I think that my experience in and understanding of science in eighth grade would have been much different if these things had occurred.

Text-to-World
I have been thinking about the part at the beginning of the Jetton and Shanahan chapter when it talks about teachers not using science textbooks.  If we want students to be prepared for college, we must teach them how to read science (and other) texts before they get there.  It seems that many high school students are in for a rude awakening when they enter college because they have never been taught to do this.  Consequently, these same students flounder their way through college science classes and are not actually prepared for the real world.  Good instruction in literacy begins well before a student enters a university.

Questions

1.  How do you go about "negotiating success" with a student when your district or school has specific policies about grading that are contrary to what the chapter mentioned?

2.  How do you determine the quality of a science textbook?  The texts mentioned that science textbooks should definitely be used, but surely it is not efficient to just choose any.

Disciplinary Literacy: Math

Synthesis

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
According to the authors, "communication is central to successful engagement in mathematical processes" (p.192).  Thus, students and teachers must learn how to more effectively communicate during and outside of math classes.  Math language is different from other types of literacy because it includes many symbols and visual representations in addition to what we often consider "normal" reading and writing.  The authors suggest several ways to help students understand the language that is specific to math.  These include using background knowledge to expand on new concepts; modeling the use of math language to explain a concept; encouraging students to connect new ideas back to their original knowledge through discussions and writing; providing effective, meaningful feedback; and inviting students to generate texts for an audience outside the classroom.  Learning a new foreign language requires exploration and practice, and learning the language of math is no different.  Of course, students must feel respected if they are to engage and ask questions while learning the language of mathematics.

Jetton and Shanahan
A recurring theme in this chapter seems to be that math teachers and literacy instructors need to work together in order to make math instruction effective in the classroom.  Unfortunately, literacy instructors often do not take the uniqueness of "math language" into account.  Recommendations from literacy coaches and others have suggested using general texts ("The Lottery" was mentioned), children's books, or picture books to incorporate literacy into the math classroom.  While these texts do support literacy as a whole, the concepts that they teach tend to be so vaguely related to math that they are not useful.  Teachers must learn to expand their ideas about literacy when it comes to the mathematics classroom.  In math, it is just as important to be able to read charts, graphs, symbols, and other visual representations as it is to read a story about a mathematical concept.  Students do need to demonstrate conceptual understanding (which can, at times, be acquired through reading a general text), but they also must demonstrate computational fluency and knowledge of mathematical processes.  The authors of this chapter also mentioned that it is very important for students to create their own texts in math.  In short, teachers need to redefine their views of literacy in the math classroom, and students need to be invited to engage in multiple literacies there.

Moji
The YouTube video reinforced much of what the authors stated in the chapters that we read.  Moji states that adolescents have many avenues in life to navigate, and it is our job as teachers to help them navigate the many different disciplinary literacies.  Explicit attention must be given to this, and students must be provided with opportunities for repeated practice and exposure.  Students must be active, not passive, in literacy engagement and production.  Navigating disciplinary literacy is taught through "five Es": Expose, Engage, Elicit/Engineer, Examine, and Evaluate.  All of these steps are important in helping students learn to read and comprehend the multiple literacies that face them in secondary school.

Responses

Text-to-Text
I found that the readings this week were actually fairly unlike any that I have read before.  It seems that I have often heard and read that it is good to use children's books and general texts in a secondary mathematics classroom, but this week's readings seemingly contradicted that.  But, like our previous readings, the authors from this week again mentioned the importance of keeping students engaged so that they will feel comfortable asking questions and will want to participate in class activities.

Text-to-self
As I was reading the Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas chapter, I thought back to my days in math class.  Math has never been my strong subject, but I wonder how much more I would have enjoyed it and felt more confident in my abilities, had more of my teachers employed some of the strategies mentioned in these chapters.  All I remember from math is doing computations, proofs, etc.  We did not often engage in meaningful discussions about the concepts, and I certainly never considered that I might be learning literacy skills in math.  The two subjects always were completely separate in my mind.

Text-to-world
I think that, as teachers, we all need to do a better job of helping our students realize that math actually is important to them in our future lives.  So often, I hear kids say, "But I'm never going to use this in my job!"  We need to point out the ways in which math is useful every day, even when the particular concept being taught might not seem to be.  Literacy extends far beyond the pages of a book; just think how often students are required to use math when counting money, telling the time, or reading a chart/graph!

Questions

1.  Norman uses Everyday Math, and some of the ways that the curriculum teaches math concepts are completely bizarre to me.  How to I make these teaching methods (such as partial sums or lattice multiplication) seem useful to my students when I personally don't believe that they are?

2.  How do I encourage students to participate in a class discussion or help group members work a problem on the board when they are very fearful about getting an answer wrong?  I know that, obviously, I need to build relationships with each student so that they feel more confident in their abilities, but are there more practical ways to do this?  (I was always the student who was shy and unwilling to participate in math!)

Teaching Disciplinary Texts

Synthesis:

Jetton and Shanahan
In this chapter, the authors discussed effective ways of teaching text in English/Language Arts.  The chapter began by showing how one teacher led her class through a study of Of Mice and Men.  To an outsider, Mrs. Smith's approach to teaching the text seems like a good one.  When we look closer, though, we discover that teaching English/Language Arts is far more complicated than it seems.  In response to such a complex subject area, teachers must learn to use various types of lessons and allow different types of responses so that all adolescent learners can appropriately respond to texts.  English teachers must also work to keep their students motivated and engaged while providing a purpose for reading and writing.  The importance of connecting texts to students' lives and other curriculum areas cannot be understated.

Because teaching English language arts can be so complicated, Jetton and Shanahan gave some practical suggestions for teachers to follow, both for reading and for writing/composing in the classroom.  Before reading, teachers should present themes for students to consider.  This allows students to establish a purpose for reading and to connect with the text in a more thought-provoking way as they are reading it.  After reading, students must be asked to respond to the text in a meaningful way.  Usually, "meaningful" does not include a test, and it often does not include an essay in the sense that Mrs. Smith requested essays for her class.  Students are now surrounded by different types of text and media; thus, these elements should be included in a summative assessment upon conclusion of the reading.  The authors also suggested including more young adult literature into the classroom.  In some cases, a set curriculum or canon of literature is required.  In these classrooms, teachers must work especially hard to make the readings meaningful and connect them to other literature or life experiences.  As in many of the other chapters we have read, the authors suggest moving forward by using technology and by modeling and explicitly teaching reading and writing strategies.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
Chapter 10 of this book focused on reading and writing across multiple texts.  It began by giving reasons for writing and reading across multiple texts.  In sum, "discipline experts all read and write multiple texts" (p.171), so we should teach adolescents to do the same.  Unfortunately, adolescents often do not know how to navigate the wide variety of information that is available to them.  They cannot determine which sources are credible and which are not.  They also have trouble doing formal writing activities, despite the many informal writing activities that they engage in every day.  The authors discussed three processes that can help readers across multiple texts: sourcing, contextualization, and corroboration.  All three of these processes help students evaluate the credibility of the texts they are reading.  In this chapter, the authors also suggested presenting multiple texts on the same topic to students.  No more than three texts should be used, and the first text should primarily be used as an introduction to build background knowledge.  Though mathematicians do not value sourcing and contextualization very highly, they do read critically.  Historians engage in all three of the processes mentioned, while scientists focus on learning unknown information first and then engaging in one or all of the processes.

Chapter 12 talked about reading challenging texts.  Similar to other texts we have read, this text highlights the value of choice in reading and writing.  Motivation does matter.  Texts must be embedded in social networks, since these are very important to adolescents.  The chapter then moved from discussing motivation through close reading to talking about the types of knowledge and skill needed for meaningful reading.  These included: semantic knowledge, mathematical knowledge, historical knowledge, geographic knowledge, discursive knowledge, and pragmatic knowledge.  The authors concluded the chapter by giving teachers practical ways to make close reading meaningful to students.  Some of the suggestions that stood out to me were modeling (again!), asking students questions and allowing them to process their answers out loud, and building knowledge as a group.  Students also need to be reminded of why disciplinary texts are important to them in their everyday lives.

Responses:

Text-to-text
Every week, I am amazed by how much the authors all talk about motivation.  It seems like motivation and engagement are mentioned in every chapter we read.  Apparently, these really are issues at the heart of teaching adolescent literacy.  We must make an effort to connect to our students on a personal level and through literature.  Most of the authors discuss modeling, as well.  We cannot expect our students to become expert readers if we are not actually showing and directly teaching them how to do it.

Text-to-self
When I first started reading about Mrs. Smith's approach to teaching Of Mice and Men, I thought she was doing a great job.  After all, this is the way I grew up reading and responding to literature when I was in school.  I do consider myself to be a strong reader and writer, but, looking back now, I don't think that all of that can be attributed to my teachers' instruction.  I think that sometimes I just "got it," and this is not the case for many students.  Because so many different types of technology, texts, and resources are now available to everyone, I need to make an effort to incorporate those into my classroom instead of assuming that all students learn the way I do.

Text-to-world
By teaching students to read disciplinary texts more effectively, we will have a much more knowledgeable and interested society.  I'm trying to imagine a world in which no one read critically or asked questions of the text.  (Isn't this often how our classrooms look?)  This world makes me think of The Giver, in which no one had an opinion about anything or felt anything because the information was controlled, and no one ever asked any questions.  If students can learn to evaluate texts and judge whether or not they are credible, we will be producing a more forward-thinking, informed society.  I think that people have a tendency to just believe things because they have read them, which can obviously be dangerous.

Questions:

1.  Do you use "choice boards" in your classroom to allow students to respond to texts in different ways?  If so, how do these work, or could you give an example of one that you have used?

2.  Are there ever instances in which math texts should be judged for their credibility, even when they present the correct answers to a problem?  We read that mathematicians do not concern themselves much with sourcing, corroboration, and contextualization, but I can't help but think that sometimes these things would be necessary.     

Text Complexity and Reading Disciplinary Texts

This week's readings centered around text complexity and reading disciplinary texts.

Synthesis: 

The first authors, Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas, began their chapter by giving some background information on Common Core State Standards and cited the "increasing proportion of informational text" in the adolescent years.  Students must be directly taught how to read and respond to these higher level texts.  According to the CCSS, there are three components which can be used to measure text complexity: quantitative measures, qualitative measures, and reader and task considerations.  Quantitative measures are straight-forward and provide a number, such as The Lexile Framework, which is derived from a formula that looks at vocabulary, syntax, word and sentence length, and word repetition.  Qualitative measures include four domains: levels of meaning, text structure, language conventionality, and knowledge demands.  Qualitative rubrics and quantitative formulas provide valuable information, but they do not take into account specific reader and task considerations, which is why the third measure must be used.  For one to become a better reader, text complexity must gradually be increased through deliberate practice.  Teachers must provide effective feedback to students and try to reach their "zone of proximal development."  According to the chapter, "simply reading more at the same level is insufficient" to promote increased reading skills.  Teachers also need to make sure that their students stay motivated because of the need to reread texts and build fluency.  Computer-assisted instruction can be helpful for reading if a quality program is chosen.  Finally, teachers must ensure that their "expert readers" continue to be challenged.  

The second authors, Jetton and Shanahan, centered their chapters around the differences in text among specific academic disciplines.  According to them, the past decade has yielded a lack of improvement in literacy scores, and teachers are ill-equipped to rectify the situation.  In their research, the authors found that sadly, only 3% of instructional time was spent modeling and scaffolding, and of that 3%, mostly literal questions and written summaries were assigned.  Highly specialized disciplinary texts make comprehension difficult because of their many abstractions and impersonal nature.  Some suggestions for helping this situation include exposing children to all kinds of texts starting in elementary school, building prior knowledge, noting text features and surprising information, and summarizing.  The authors made it clear that reading comprehension strategies and instructional strategies for reading are not the same (instructional strategies are ways to teach reading strategies).  A major point was that automatic word recognition and fluency are requisite to comprehension, and these things must be taught explicitly to students.  Building background knowledge will also assist comprehension.  Some instructional strategies and frameworks included reciprocal teaching, direct explanation, and modeling.  Students must be taught to use multiple strategies and self-regulate.

The two following chapters from Jetton and Shanahan discussed the challenges of reading disciplinary texts and how expert readers read such texts.  The authors emphasized the differences in reading mathematics, history, and science.  Because each subject has its own set of vocabulary, sentence construction, and required background knowledge, the disciplinary texts must all be read differently, and comprehension may become a challenge.  The chapters talked a lot about reading "outside the text," meaning that students and expert readers both bring their own ideas and judgments about the author(s) of a particular passage and when the article was written.  These preconceived ideas dramatically affect the way one reads "inside the text."  Teachers of math, history, and science all need to be taught how to teach their students to read within the discipline they teach.

Responses:

Text-to-text:
Many of our readings seem to discuss the importance of motivation, and this week's readings were no different.  As the first chapter talked about text complexity, it mentioned repeated readings.  Teachers will want to be sure that their adolescent readers are engaged in and motivated by the texts they are reading if they are to read them multiple times and improve fluency.  Just as the readings last week, this week's chapters also talked about modeling good reading strategies for students to improve their comprehension.  An addition that I enjoyed this week was when the authors mentioned that teachers need modeling, as well!

Text-to-self:
When I was reading the Academic Disciplines book this week, I realized that I read almost everything the exact same way.  I have always believed myself to have good comprehension skills, but when it comes to disciplinary text, I am not sure that I do.  I have never been very good at math or science, and now I understand that perhaps part of the reason is due to the fact that I never really knew how to read the assigned texts.  I was not looking at them with the right perspective and didn't quite know how to find the information I needed.  Realizing this about myself will allow me to better help my students, I believe.  I am looking forward to teaching them how to consider different angles when reading various kinds of texts.

Text-to-world:
This week's readings relate to the world because every student needs to know how to read a variety of texts for a variety of purposes.  It becomes easy to get "tunnel vision" and only read texts that are a specific genre or match a certain interest that a child has.  If students are able to increase their comprehension across all kinds of texts including math, history, and science, what an enlightened world of young people we will have!

Questions:

1.  I'm realizing that I have gone my whole life and not known how to read disciplinary texts.  What are some ways that I can improve my comprehension skills, particularly in math and science, as an adult, given the many years of bad habits I've developed?

2.  I teach special education, so I feel like I do pretty well with differentiating instruction for struggling students.  As the texts continue to mention the importance of motivation and engagement, what are some ways that I can continue to challenge my advanced students?

3.  Do your schools use any quality reading programs on the computer?  If so, what are they and why do you like them?

Comprehension

Synthesis

Jetton and Shanahan
This chapter was particularly interesting to me because it did not seem, at first, to talk much at all about reading comprehension for adolescents.  Instead, the chapter began with a focus on teacher planning.  According to the authors, many components go into planning a lesson using disciplinary texts.  Some specific considerations mentioned were student identities, sociocultural factors, and purposes for reading.  This reading discussed that planning a lesson before it occurs is important, but using wisdom to make decisions on-the-spot is equally valuable.  Just as the students must be able to read and understand disciplinary texts, teachers must be able to "read" and understand their students.  As we have read in many other texts, motivation and engagement are key; hence, it is vital to offer choices to students.  In the academic disciplines, teachers must also teach strategies to help their students comprehend text.  The text mentioned that students should be able to activate prior knowledge, determine the importance in a text, use mental imagery, analyze the text structure, generate questions, make inferences, and monitor their comprehension.  These things do not necessarily occur implicitly; a teacher must model the skills and then provide opportunities for guided practice.  These strategies also look differently, depending on the academic context in which they are used (math, social studies, etc.).

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
Similar to the previous reading, this chapter also discussed the value of modeling specific comprehension strategies and then providing opportunities for guided practice, as well as establishing a purpose for reading.  Some comprehension strategies mentioned are self-questioning, summarizing, inferencing, self-monitoring, connection, and analysis.  An important note at the close of the chapter says that reading comprehension "requires that students interact with one another, with the teacher, and with the text itself."  This is noteworthy because using one or two strategies correctly does not guarantee reading comprehension.  Students must activity engage in text-based discussions.  When considering comprehension, one must also consider the nature of the text which is being read.  Text must remain at an appropriate level of complexity.  Text complexity can be judged by evaluating the levels of meaning, density, text structure, and background knowledge.  Furthermore, quality questions must be asked to ensure comprehension.  And, as we saw in last week's readings, vocabulary must be taught before text can be comprehended fully.

Fisher, Frey, and Ross
This text, like the others, mentioned that there are many factors which can influence reading comprehension.  These include background knowledge, a purpose for reading, and word knowledge (vocabulary).  Teachers can practice several "instructional routines" to help their students better comprehend the texts they read.  This reading, like the others, states that teachers should model the strategies that they use while reading for their students.  Specifically, teachers should model their thought processes when encountering comprehension, vocabulary, text structures, and text features.  After modeling, students should be provided with opportunities to practice what the teacher has demonstrated.  In addition to modeling, teachers should allow students to engage in "reciprocal teaching," which allows students to become leaders in four particular areas: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting.

Responses

Text to self
As an elementary school teacher, I teach all subjects (math, reading, social studies, and science), so these readings were very helpful for me in knowing how to monitor comprehension in all areas of my instruction, not just reading.  I also appreciate how all of the articles noted the importance of active engagement with texts, not simply passive reading or listening.  In my classroom, I like for everyone to get involved because involvement fosters greater understanding, and the texts gave me some ideas for how I can facilitate class discussions and participation.  The sections of the readings that talked about modeling were also interesting and useful to me.  I realized that I often expect my students to "just know" what I'm thinking or how to use a specific strategy, when they actually need me to show them how to do it first before providing opportunities for practice.

Text to text
This week's readings reminded me a lot of last week's readings because vocabulary and comprehension interact so directly with each other.  Without an adequate vocabulary, students cannot comprehend.  Furthermore, neither vocabulary nor comprehension is just learned; both must be directly taught.  Both last week's readings and this week's readings discussed the importance of finding interesting texts for students to read so that they stay engaged, as well.  In one of my professional development trainings with Norman Public Schools, we read an article about the need for choosing appropriate questions that promote higher-level thinking to encourage comprehension, and this week's readings also seemed to advocate for that.

Text to world
All of these chapters relate to literacy in general because, without comprehension, there is really no point in reading at all.  Words are simply words without a thorough understanding of what they mean.  I believe that one of the reasons why many students do not enjoy reading is because they do not understand what they are being asked to read.  Personally, I would be bored by reading if it were solely about decoding words.  Once a valid purpose is established for reading and comprehending, students can begin to read for knowledge and pleasure, instead of reading to answer questions at the end of a chapter, as they are often asked to do in middle school and high school.

Questions

1.  Over and over, these readings seem to mention the importance of establishing a valid purpose for reading, keeping students interested and engaged, etc.  What are some practical ways to do that, given that the provided curriculum is often boring?

2.  How can I help a student to increase his or her background knowledge if she comes to me with limited prior experiences and no desire to read?

3.  How should I pair students for reciprocal teaching?  I have heard various thoughts about this.  Should I pair students with equal ability levels, or do a high-low pairing?  Please explain your reasoning.

Vocabulary Development

Synthesis

This week's readings all focused around the area of vocabulary development, specifically in the middle and high school years.  All of the readings mentioned the fact that vocabulary development is an extremely important aspect of adolescent literacy, yet it is often overlooked in an effort to teach other things.  As mentioned by all three authors, teachers must direct more deliberate attention and time to vocabulary instruction.  The readings gave strategies and practical advice for doing this (as well as the benefits of effective vocabulary instruction) and also stated some of the obstacles that one might encounter when trying to accommodate for the gap in vocabulary that some students have.

Manzo, Manzo, and Thomas
This article first discussed the problem that many students do not have a vast knowledge of low-frequency words.  It gave several possible reasons for this: the "coarsening of public language," the need for teachers to be "plain-spoken" at times, and the "semantic-cultural-instructional paradoxes" that abound unintentionally.  After giving reasons for vocabulary decline, the article then moved on to give reasons for deliberate vocabulary instruction.  The authors say that the knowledge of words can boost self-esteem and higher-level thinking.  This knowledge can also increase comprehension and allow people to express themselves more accurately.  The authors wrap up the article by giving the reader some "sound methods of teaching vocabulary."  These include keywords, motor imaging, vocabulary self-selection, and wide reading.  Also mentioned are some intentional-incidental approaches (community of planning, and hybrid cultures and media) which require planning but have been found to be quite effective.

Harmon, Wood, and Medina
This article began by presenting some questions that content area teachers commonly ask about how to teach vocabulary.  It then went on to discuss the vocabulary that occurs in specific content areas: mathematics, science, and social studies.  All three of these content areas have technical terms, nontechnical terms, function words and word clusters and phrases, unique representations, and common roots.  The article then talked about the importance of content vocabulary instruction and how students need to participate in many exposures to and interactions with vocabulary in order for it to become meaningful to them.  Similar to the previous article, this reading closes with some practical instructional strategies for learning vocabulary.  Independent word-learning strategies included use of context clues, morphemic and structural analysis, attention to work origins, and "word consciousness."  Because different content areas require different types of instruction, several were listed: concept circles, contextual redefinition, the key word method, and the Word Family Tree.

Hinchman and Sheridan-Thomas
Though short, this chapter, for me, was very powerful.  It begins by listing benefits of having a large vocabulary: It boosts comprehension, improves achievement, enhances thinking and communication, and promotes fluency.  The chapter then talks about how vocabulary is learned through vicarious experiences, direct experiences, and direct instruction.  Furthermore, vocabulary is divided into three tiers, with Tier Three words being the most difficult and least common.  As in the previous two readings, this chapter closes with instructional techniques: K-W-L, Teach-Teach-Trade, A Word a Day, Root Words, and Digital Words.

Responses

Text to Self
As I was reading these chapters, I realized that I am one of the many guilty teachers who does not spend adequate time or energy focused on vocabulary instruction.  In special education, I also struggle with knowing how to make up for the deficit in vocabulary that many of my students possess.  These readings helped me understand how important it is for me to devote specific time every day to some form of vocabulary instruction, and it gave me some practical ideas for me to try in my classroom.  I'm specifically excited about "A Word a Day"!

Text to Text
Though previous readings of mine have not focused on vocabulary instruction for older students, I have read some about vocabulary instruction in the younger grades.  I have read that one of the greatest indicators of success in reading is how much children are read to at home when they are young.  All of these articles on adolescent literacy also mentioned the importance of wide reading.  The more exposure young children and adolescents have to text, the more their vocabularies will grow.

Text to World
These readings relate to literacy in general because better vocabulary naturally creates better readers.  If, as teachers, we can work hard to make vocabulary meaningful and useful to our students, we can also improve their fluency and comprehension.  In our last Adolescent Literacy class, we talked a lot about giving students choices in their reading.  I think this is definitely important for vocabulary acquisition, as well, because students will be more motivated to learn vocabulary related to topics which interest them.

Questions:

1.  I teach special education and Pre-K and I find similar problems in both settings.  Though I see my Pre-K students for 2.5 hours every day, their attention spans are approximately 4 minutes long.  My special education classroom is a resource room, so I only see most of my students for 20-30 minutes each day.  My question is, how can I effectively teach vocabulary given the time restraints I face in each of my situations?

2.  Can students who come from homes that do not possess "vocabulary-rich" environments ever really "catch up?"

EDRG 5733

This blog was created to respond to readings in the Adolescent Literacy class at OU.